Crevecoeur in America Essay Example for Free

Crevecoeur in the States EssayHector St. John Crvecoeur is sure enough not one of the grandest figures of American history, but he can at the very least be credited with having been witness to a great deal of some of the key events that lead to the inception of the United States of America in the 18th century.1 Crvecoeur saw the burgeoning nation under many opposite angles during different periods of American history2. This coupled with the fact that as a foreigner who lived in the colonies he was able to step back and appraise American behavior and culture and be also able to see it from the inside. This essay will focus on the American life of Hector St. John de Crvecoeur and judge a sketch of how his life took place and how the colonies and the new American nation affected him. Firstly we will examine Crvecoeurs life in the colonies, including his living conditions, regions he inhabited and his overall situation during his time there. Secondly, we will review his experien ces in the colonies and North America. Thirdly we will attempt to see how, when and by whom was Crvecoeur influenced during his time in America and what effects this had on both the United States of American and Crvecoeur himself.Michel-Guillaume Jean de Crvecoeur or St. John de Crvecoeur as we would later know him would first set foot in North America in Canada in 1754. Fighting under the Montcalm during the French-Indian War, Crvecoeur leftfield Canada for the English colonies where he worked as an itinerant merchant allowed him to envision many aspects and parts of North America. In 1759 he eventually settled down in Orange County in New York and became a citizen of the colony, changing his name to John Hector St. John.. Crvecoeur took up a life of farming and raised a family, while still keeping in touch with the outside world albeit staying out of its affairs almost entirely. afterwards the upheaval of the Revolutionary War and a five-year long return to France, Crvecoeur ev entually returned to New York in 1783 in the capacity of First Consul of his Christian Majesty to the State of New York. In this wondrous position Crvecoeur toiled to establish trading between the Americancolonies and the French crown. In addition he also informed France and through France, Europe of what the lives, stack and the continent of North America was truly like. Although Crvecoeurs sojourns in the colonies were no doubt a source of great pride and accomplishment, they were also a time of hardship, suspicion and uncertainty.St. John de Crvecoeurs experiences in North America and the colonies within were varied. In turn his life there was filled with successes. After being a competent soldier for France he became a farmer and raised a family that he loved and was proud of. He eventually reached a position of at least symbolic power where he found himself in a position to both help his motherland as tumefy as foster greater understanding, appreciation and maybe even pros perity for a land and a nation that had been his home for most of his life. However, if one were to equalize Crvecoeurs experiences on the continent to be purely idyllic one would be sorely mistaken. In addition to the hardships of agrestic life he also had to experience suspicion and imprisonment during his time there.Crvecoeur, although naturalized as an American, was still very much a Frenchman. Although very much big(p) for his times Crvecoeur still retained a healthy respect for religion and monarchy, twin pillars of the French elite. He was also enamored with English family and government, considered far more liberal and egalitarian by the French philosophers still under the reign of an absolute monarchy. His first book was in fact dedicated to Abbot Raynal whose work Histoire philosophique et politique des tablissements des Europens dans les deux Indes (1770) inspired him to think about America and his situation. Furthermore, Crvecoeurs own experiences and his reading of instilled him with the idea that the American colonies, with their ghostly tolerance. Although ultimately addressed to the higher strata of society, designed as a sort of quaint picture of pastoral utopia, his works are ultimately a jubilation and an accolade to the workingman and the lower classes of the time. Crvecoeur is even sometimes credited with being the inventor of what would become the American Dream.Colonial American shaped Crvecoeur. The hardships of the rural life began to change his view of the rural idyll that we first see in his writings. The dangers of that life and the unrelenting and often unjust vagaries of the elements, neighbors and country life quality down on him. Although still somewhat in awe of some of the leaders that permitted the Revolution some of his writings tell a tale of disenchant with great leaders and the hero worship that resulted with some of the heroes of the American Revolution, namely Washington. The Revolution further marred Crvecoeur s utopian take on the colonies and also the English themselves.To say that Crvecoeur is an interesting character of American history is an understatement. Having been witness to three distinct phases of colonial America. These are the pre-revolutionary period, the actual American Revolution itself and its aftermath. These various periods and stages in his life affect him deeply and modified his writings and his views. In conclusion, Hector St. John de Crvecoeur embodies many things that characterized colonial America as both a land brimming with opportunity and a place and time steeped in brutality and harshness.BIBLIOGRAPHYPatchell, Thomas J. Hector St. John de Crvecoeur in Early American Nature Writers ed. by Daniel Patterson (London Greenwood Press 2008), 103Plotkin, A. Saint-John de Crevecoeur Rediscovered Critic or Paneygyrist? French Historical Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Spring, 1964) 403-404Plumstead, A. W. Crevecoeur A Man of Sorrows and the American Revolution The Massachusett s Review, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Summer, 1976) 287-288St. John de Crevecoeur, John Letters from an American Farmer, 1783, ed. Albert Stone (New York, NY Penguin American Library, 1981), 226-227St. John de Crevecoeur, John Quest-ce quun Amricain? (ed. Howard Rice) (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1943

Critical Discourse Analysis, Organizational Discourse, and Organizational Change Essay Example for Free

Critical Discourse Analysis, Organizational Discourse, and Organizational Change EssayDiscourses is an divisor of all concrete genial events (actions, plowes) as soundly as of to a greater extent fixed cordial practices, though neither ar simply sermon they be articulations of discourse with non-discoursal shares. Discourse subsumes language as well as early(a) clays of semiosis such as visual images and body language, and the discoursal element of a kind event often combines different semiotical forms (eg a television programme).But the use of the term discourse rather than language is not purely or even primarily motivated by the diversity of forms of semiosis, it is primarily registers a relational way of seeing semiosisi, as one element of social events and practices dialecti identifyy interconnected with anformer(a)(prenominal) elements. The everyplaceriding object of discourse analysis, on this eyeshot, is not simply analysis of discourse per se, scarce an alysis of the dialectical dealing mingled with discourse and non-discoursal elements of the social, in order to annoy a better understanding of these complex dealings (including how tacks in discourse back in like mannerth cause changes in early(a) elements). But if we be to analyse relations amid discourse and non-discoursal elements, we must obviously see them as ontologically (and not just epistemologically, analytically) different elements of the social.They atomic come in 18 different, but they are not discrete that is, they are dialectically related, in the intelligence that elements internalize other elements, without universe reducible to them (Harvey 1996, Chouliaraki Fairclough 1999, Fairclough 2003, Fairclough, Jessop Sayer 2004). A realist view of social life sees it as including social structures as well as social events in critical realist terms, the real (which defines and delimits what is possible) as well as the actual (what actually happens).There is a general recognition that the family relationship between structures and events must be a mediated relation, and I follow for instance Bhaskar (1986) and Bourdieu (Bourdieu Wacquant 1992) in regarding social practices as the mediating entities more or less durable and stable articulations of diverse social elements including discourse which constitute social alternatives and orderings of the allowances of social structures as actualisable allowances in peculiar(prenominal) areas of social life in a veritable time and place. societal fields, institutions and organizations stop be regarded as internets of social practices. Networks of social practices include specifically discoursal selections and orderings (from languages and other semiotic systems, which are counted amongst social structures) which I call orders of discourse, appropriating but redefining Foucaults term (Foucault 1984, Fairclough 1992). Orders of discourse are social structurings of linguistic/semiotic v ariation or difference.Realist discourse analysis on this view is based in a dialectical-relational social ontology which gives ontological priority to helpes and relations over objects, entities, persons, organizations etc, yet sees the latter as socially produced permanences (Harvey 1996) which constitute a pre-structured existence with which we are confronted, and sets of affordances and limitations on processes. Epistemological priority is given to neither pre- puddleed social structures, practices, institutions, identities or organizations, nor to processes, actions, and events the concern is with the relationship and accent between them.People with their capacities for agency are seen as socially produced, contingent and subject to change, yet real, and possessing real causal powers which, in their tension with the causal powers of social structures, are a centralise for analysis. Social research proceeds through with(predicate) abstraction from the concrete events of soci al life aimed at understanding the pre-structured nature of social life, and returns to analysis of concrete events, actions and processes in the well-heeled of this abstract knowledge.Discourse and non-discoursal elements of social events and social practices are related in many ways. I distinguish three main ways representing, acting (and interacting), and being. At the level of social practices, orders of discourse can be seen as articulations of specific ways of representing, acting, and being ie specific discourses, genres and airs. A discourse is a particular way of representing indisputable parts or aspects of the (physical, social, psychological) world a genre is a particular way of (inter)acting (which comprises the discoursal element of a way of inter)acting which will also necessarily comprise non-discoursal elements) a style is a way of being (the discoursal element of a way of being, an identity, which will also include non-discoursal elements). I shall use the ter m textii, in a generalized sense (not just written text but also communicate interaction, multi-semiotic televisual text etc) for the discoursal element of social events.Texts are doubly contextualized, first in their relation to other elements of social events, second in their relation to social practices, which is internal to texts in the sense that they necessarily draw upon orders of discourse, ie social practices in their discoursal aspect, and the discourses, genres and styles associated with them. However, events (and therefore texts) are points of articulation and tension between two causal forces social practices and, through their mediation, social structures and the agency of the social actors who speak, write, compose, read, listen to, interpret them.The social resource of discourses, genres and styles is subject to the transformative potential of social agency, so that texts do not simply instantiate discourses, genres and styles, they actively rework them, articulate them together in distinctive and potentially novel ways, hybridize them, transform them. My focus in this paper is on organizational change, and this indication of CDA has indeed been developed in association with research on discourse in social change.Social change comprises change in social structures, social practices, the networking of social practices, and (the character of) social events and change in languages and other semiotic systems, in orders of discourse and relations between orders of discourse, and in texts. With respect to orders of discourse, social change includes change in the social structuring of linguistic/semiotic variation, therefore change in discourses, genres and styles, and change in their articulation in orders of discourse, and change in relations between orders of discourse (eg political and media orders of discourse).With respect to texts, social change includes tendential change in how discourses, genres and styles are drawn upon and articulated/hyb ridized together in various types of text. The process of social change raises questions about causal relations between different elements. Causal relations are not simple or one-way. For instance, it would seem to fabricate more sense to see brand-new communication technologies (ICTs) as causing the emergence of new genres than vice-versa changes in discourse caused by changes in non-discoursal elements.In other cases, change appears to be discourse-led. A pervasive contemporary process (for instance in processes of transition in central and eastern Europe) is change initiated through the recontextualizationiii in an organization, a social field, or a country of external discourses, which may then be enacted in new ways of (inter)acting including new genres, inculcated as new ways of being including styles, and materialized in for example new ways of organizing space.These enactments, inculcations and materializations are dialectical processes. There is an important proviso howe ver these processes are contingent, they depend upon certain conditions of possibility. For instance, when a discourse is recontextualized, it enters a new field of social relations, and its trajectory inwardly those social relations is decisive in determining whether or not it has (re)constructive effectuate on the organization, social field etc overall.In contexts of social change, different groups of social actors may develop different and conflicting strategies for change, which have a partly discursive character (narratives of the past, representations of the present, imaginaries for the future), and inclusion within a successful strategy is a condition for a discourse being dialectically enacted, inculcated and materialized in other social elements (Jessop 2002, Fairclough, Jessop Sayer 2004).Discourses construe aspects of the world in inherently selective and reductive ways, translating and condensing complex realities (Harvey 1996), and one always needs to ask, why this particular selection and reduction, why here, why now? (For a discussion of globalisation discourse in these terms, see Fairclough Thomas forthcoming. Locating discourses in relation to strategies in contexts of social change enables us to connect particular representations of the world with particular interests and relations of power, as well assess their ideological import. Discourses do not emerge or become recontextualized in particular organizations or fields at random, and they do not stand in an arbitrary relation to social structures and practices, forms of institutionalization and organization.If we can construct explanations of change in non-discoursal elements of social reality which attribute causal cause to discourses, we can also construct explanations of change in discourses which attribute causal effects to (non-discoursal elements of) structures and practices, as well as social and strategic relations. The social wind of the social world may sometimes be a matter of changes in non-discoursal elements caused by discourses (through the concrete forms of texts), but discourses (and texts) are also causal effects, the dialectics of social change is not a one-way street.We can distinguish four elements, or moments, in the social trajectories of discourses their emergence and constitution (through a re-articulation of existing elements) their entry into hegemonic struggles from which they may emerge as hegemonic discourses their dissemination and recontextualization across structural and scalar boundaries (ie between one field or institution or organization and others, and between one scale (global, macro-regional (eg the EU), national, local) and others and their operationalization (enactment, inculcation, materialization).These are distinct moments with respect to the causal effects of discourses on non-discoursal (as well as discoursal, ie generic and stylistic) elements of social life, and they are all subject to non-discoursal as well as dis coursal conditions. CDA cites that social research can be enriched by extending analysis of social processes and social change into detailed analysis of texts.More detailed (including linguistic) analysis of texts is connected to broader social analysis by way of (a) analysing texts as part of analysing social events, (b) interdiscursive analysis of shifting articulations of genres, discourses, styles in texts (Fairclough 2003).The latter locates the text as an element of a concrete event in its relationship to orders of discourse as the discoursal aspect of networks of social practices, and so allows the analyst to (a) assess the relationship and tension between the causal effects of agencies in the concrete event and the causal effects of (networks of) social practices, and through them of social structures (b) detect shifts in the relationship between orders of discourse and networks f social practices as these are registered in the interdiscursivity (mixing of genres, discourse s, styles) of texts. Text can be seen as product and as process. Texts as products can be stored, retrieved, bought and sold, cited and summarized and so forth. Texts as processes can be grasped through seeing texturing, making texts, as a specific modality of social action, of social production or making (of meanings, understandings, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, feelings, social relations, social and personal identities, institutions, organizations).The focus is on logogenesis (Iedema 2003115-17), including the texturing of entities (objects, persons, spaces, organizations) which can, given certain preconditions, be dialectically internalized (enacted, inculcated and materialized) in non-discoursal elements of social life. See for instance the discussion of the significance of nominalization as a logogenetic process in texts in processes of organizing, producing organization objects, in Iedema (2003).Organizational DiscourseI shall construct my very selective comments on organiza tional discourse analysis around the hobby four themes organization and organizing variation, selection and retention understandings of discourse and intertextuality. Organization and organizing Mumby Stohl (1991) argue that researchers in organizational communication most centrally differ from those in other areas of organization studies in that the former problematize organization whereas the latter do not. For us, organization or organizing, to use Weicks (1979) term is a precarious, ambiguous, uncertain process that is continually being made and remade.In Weicks sense, organizations are only seen as stable, rational structures when viewed retrospectively. Communication, then, is the substance of organizing in the sense that through discursive practices organization members engage in the construction of a complex and diverse system of meanings. Another formulation of this shift in emphasis from organizations as structures to organizing (or organizational becoming, Tsoukas Ch ia 2002) as a process is that of Mumby Clair (1997 181) we suggest that organizations exist only in so far as their members create them through discourse.This is not to claim that organizations are nothing but discourse, but rather that discourse is the principal means by which organization members create a coherent social reality that frames their sense of who they are. Despite the disclaimer at the beginning of the second sentence, this formulation can as argued by Reed (forthcoming) be seen as collapsing ontology into epistemology, and undermining the ontological reality of organizational structures as constraints on organizational action and communication.From the perspective of the realist view of discourse I have outlined, it makes little sense to see organizing and organization, or more generally agency and structure, as alternatives one has to choose between. With respect to organizational change, both organizational structures and the agency of members of organizations in organizational action and communication have causal effects on how organizations change. Organizational communication does indeed organize, produce organizational effects and transform organizations, but organizing is subject to conditions of possibility which include organizational structures.The paper by Iedema, Degeling, Braithwaite and egg white (2004) in the special issue of Organizational Studies is an analysis of how a doctor-manager in a teaching hospital in Australia manages the incommensurable dimensions of his boundary position between profession and organization by positioning himself across different discourses, sometimes in a single utterance. The authors identify a heteroglossia that is too context-regarding to be reducible to personal idiosyncracy, and too complex and dynamic to be the calculated outcome of conscious manipulation.They see the doctor-managers talk as a effect of bricolage, not as a display of behaviours that are pre-programmed. Nor is it an instant iation of a strategy, for strategies are they assume conscious. Although the authors recognize that organizations can set limits on what workers can say and do, impose closure, they see the doctor-manager as successfully deferring closure on his own identity and on the discourses that realize it.One can subscribe this as an interesting and nuanced study of organization as the organizing that is achieved in interaction (nuanced in the sense that it does not exclude organizational structures, though it does suggest that they are more fluid and less categorical than they have been taken to be, and it does recognize their capacity to impose closure). I would like to make a number of connected observations on this paper.First, one might see the doctor-managers feat in this case as a particular form of a more general organizational process, the management of contradictions. Second, discourse figures differently in different types of organization (Borzeix 2003, referring to Girin 2001). T he type of organization in this case seems to be in Girins terms a cognitive (or learning, or intelligent) organization, in which the normative force of (written) texts (rules, procedures) is limited, and there is an emphasis on learning in spoken interaction.There seems to be, in other terms, a relatively network type of structure rather than a simple hierarchy, where management involves a strong element participatory and consultative interaction with stakeholders. Third, connecting the first two points, spoken interaction in this type of organization accomplishes an ongoing management of contradictions which contrasts with the management of contradictions through suppressing them by imposing rules and procedures.Fourth, the doctor-managers feat can be seen as a performance of a strategy as long as we abandon the (somewhat implausible) claim that all aspects and levels of strategic action are conscious the doctor-manager would one imagines be conscious of the need to sustain a bal ancing act between skipper and managerial perspectives and priorities, and of certain specific means to do so, but that does not entail him being conscious of all the complex interactive means he uses to do it.Fifth, while particular performances of this strategy (or, indeed, any strategy) are not pre-programmed, the strategy is institutionalized, disseminated, learnt, and constitutes a facet of the type of organization as a network of social practices, ie a facet of organizational structure. Sixth, it strikes me that bringing off a sense of creative bricolage is perhaps itself a part of the managerial style of this type of organization, ie part of the strategy, the network of social practices, the order of discourse.My conclusion is that even in a case of this sort, rather more emphasis is indispensable on the relationship between organizing and organization, performance and practice, feat and strategyiv. Organizational discourse studies have been associated with postmodernist po sitions (Chia 1995, Grant, Harvey, Oswick Putnam forthcoming, Grant, Keenoy, Oswick 2001), though the field as a whole is too diverse to be seen as simply postmodernist.Chia identifies a postmodern style of thinking in organizational studies which accentuates the significance, ontological priority and analysis of the micro-logics of social organizing practices over and above their stabilized effects such as individuals. As this indicates, the focus on organizing rather than organisation is strongly associated with this style of thinking. Like the dialectical-relational ontology I advocated earlier, this style of thinking sees objects and entities as produced within ontologically prior processes.The key difference is that this style of thinking tends towards a one-sided emphasis on process, whereas the realist view of discourse analysis I have been advocating centres upon the tension between (discoursal) process and pre-structured (discoursal and linguistic, as well as non-discoursa l) objects. This form of realism is not subject to the tendency within modernist social research which is criticized by Woolgar (1988) to take the objects it arrives at through abstraction (which would include in the case of CDA orders of discourse, as well as language and other semiotic systems) to be exhaustive of the social reality it researches.The key difference in this case is whereas this form of modernist research moves from the concrete to the abstract and then forgets the concrete, the dialectic-relational form of realism I have advocated crucially makes the move back to analysis of the concrete. CDA is not merely concerned with languages and orders of discourse, it is equally concerned with text and texturing, and with the relations of tension between the two.

Intercultural communication- individual reflection

Inter cultural discourse- individual censureIntercultural Communication- Individual reflectionThe essay looks at the reflection of the group proceeding exercise. In doing so it looks at firstly what is meant by culture. On the basis of defining culture, it further looks at the communication barriers at he cunning intercultural teams when on the job(p) at heart groups. Based on some speculative models, the essay tries to identify the issues that arose during the group work. Some analytical view has been addicted to these issues based on the theoretical concepts to try and give some recommendations and guidelines for effective intercultural group work.Definitions and Special termsCulture can be defined in many ways. A historical perspective of culture accentuates on traditions being inherited and amassed over time focus on fleeting d avouch the culture. According to Gibson (2002), culture is non utilise in the senses of literature, music and art it is more(prenominal) than in the sense of a sh ard system of attitudes, beliefs, set and behaviour. The way people greet each other, dress, carry off and resolve contravene, and even the way visual information is seen and perceived. Moreover Gibson (2002) illustrates the concept of culture by using various models such as iceberg model, onion model and tree model. The iceberg model reflects the tangible expressions of culture and behaviour are above the surface of the water, and the attitudes, beliefs, values and meanings underlie the water. The onion model is a layer of culture, which can be peeled away to reveal underlying basic assumptions. For instance, the out layers are behaviour, products, rituals and symbols, under layers are fundamentals, such as attitudes, beliefs and values. Furthermore, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) bring up this is explicit and implicit level of culture. Gibson (2002) describes, the tree model contrasts visible and hidden culture, with the roots providing an image o f the historical origins of culture. Moving between cultures is like transplanting a treeto be successful, the roots absorb to be protected, and support will be needed in the new environment.The main difference in instruct assumptions and preferences which is seen between cultures stems from what Hofstede calls the collective mental programming, which contrastiveiate member of one group from another (198021). This process as per many researchers has resulted in cultural values (Kirkman Shapiro, 1997). The set , stated as a broad capability to prefer certain states of affairs to others (Hofstede, 1980 19), shows significant influences on individual capabilities (Geletkanycz, 1997 Shackleton and Ali, 1990). In this regard cultural values, assumptions and preferences, cook the underlying main structure of culture, whereas methods of activity and behaviours are the cultures only visible manifestation (Schein, 1985). As a result, the values associated within a culture are reflected in the conditioned assumptions and preferences, which helps members during the daily actions. Indeed there may be cultural differences within divers(prenominal) countries (Locke, 1995), National cultural values are tack to vary in a systematic manner more across cultures than within them (Adler, 1997 Hofstede, 1980).Within any group work, communication is vital. Then again within different members of the group from diverse backgrounds the communication tends to be diverse as well. What actually is meant by such intercultural communication? According to Stoner (2009), communication is a verbal statement meant by one person. However, Littlejohe (1992) argues communication to be the transmission of information or symbolic communication such as language, signs, imagers by manner of which they are often transmission. Mehrabian (1981) identified, there are three ways of human face of face communication such as body language, voice tonality, and words. Rosengren (2000) describe, commun ication is a combination of nonverbal, visual and understanding the field of communication. According to Tian (2000), Communication is one of the most weighty functions to master in order for any seam to succeed in todays increasingly competitive markets, particularly for firms doing communication channel internationally. Gudykunst (1994 129-136) suggests three ways of interpreting other persons behaviour Perception checkingListening effectively bountiful feedbackAccording to Gudykunst (2005), theorizing the communication within culture has had a tremendous progress within last 20 years. Initial attempts of theorizing the subject had been based on the values and assumptions of the cultures, but over the time most theories are supported by the researches. In order to reflect back on the intercultural issues that came up during group work, these have been addressed based around the theoretical models of cultural dimensions developed by researchers and explained within the model def initions in an analytical manner. Collectivism versus individualism Looking at the cultural dimension of collectivism versus individualism, it can be express that there was a sense of social connectedness (Earley Gibson, 1998) within the team. It can be said that in contrast to individualism, whereby individual team members tend to look after themselves, there is a sense of collectivist efforts towards the team putting their interests towards the group work (Hofstede, 1991). There is a sense of collectivist team effort of finding pleasure in working together like a social group (Chen et al., 1998 Cox et al., 1991 Earley, 1998). Being in a collectivist culture the team members feel closely connected and committed to the project (Boyacigiller Adler, 1991). There is emphasizes on unison and cooperation within group members (Kim et al., 1994) and reciprocal cooperation of each member to assist in each tasks (Cox et al., 1991). Yet there was a sense of lack of direction by the group leader. For e.g. the leaders authority or instructions were not adhered to which led to many tasks being unaccomplished. The carefree attitude of the group members was evident throughout the project. As mentioned by Hamden-Turner Trompendaars (1993), Hofstede, 1980 and Triandis, 1983, the group members considered themselves as independent self-controlling entities and emphasized their identity as unique, independent individual. There was a more of an individualistic orientation whereby individuals focussed on personal gain in combination or regardless(prenominal) of others often taking a competitive stance so as to maximize ones own gain, art object hurting those of other team members (Pruitt, 1981 Graham, 1986 Graham et al., 1988). Power Distance The dimension of tycoon distance reflects a cultures acceptance of social in compare. In different words, authority distance refers to the limit that those in lower social groups accept as a given the power and status of those in high er groups.In societies where power distance is at higher side,there is mostly a universal acceptance of notion ,that those with higher status deserve the respect they are afforded without any dubietyUnquestioning tends to greater levels of loyalty in organizational context and the taking of actions only after total approval of the superior. In high power distance cultures, policy of centralized decision making is followed rather than exception (Hofstede, 1980), presenting formidable barriers to teams that are highly interdependent (Shane, 1993). Thus, this should not be taken as a surprise that research suggests that members with a high power distance orientation will o seek approval before initiating any action, since they are accountable to having those at the top of the hierarchy make final decisions (Ueno and Sekaran, 1992). Generally, individuals with high power distance orientation are uncomfortable in determining authority and having decision-making powers given to them (Adl er, 1997 Hofstede, 1980, 1991). Within the group, team members at times were with a sense of low in power distance and inclined to be more of egalitarian in nature. These group members largely (though not completely) viewed each other as equals. Specifically, members within this cultural dimension interacted vertically within the group work and always desire for approval and resources from those in power of other teams (Katz and Tushman, 1983). However, it is argued that the method of equality diminishes hierarchical power in organizations and further it encourage acting without full sanction from ones superiors in low power distance cultures. Hence, these members followed agendas of their own and were bypassing the leader (Howell and Higgins, 1991). That said these practices did not preclude those individuals from helping, when needed. Such member were always on wait for those in power but only if the need arose (Howell and Higgins, 1991). Consequently, members low in power distan ce orientation were more effective in supportive of team actions requiring upward interactions, while members high in power distance were less effective and indeed reluctant to do so. Uncertainty avoidanceUncertainty avoidance has been defined as the limit to which the members of a culture feel afraid by uncertain or unpredictable lines (Hofstede, 1991 113). Individuals from high hesitation avoidance cultures feel uncomfortable transaction with uncertain situations, and therefore look for clarification when theey are in doubt (Hofstede, 1980). Cultures high on uncertainty avoidance prefers for structure and clarification, which results in an increment of orb rules and regulations in those cultures. In contrast, individuals from low uncertainly avoidance cultures tend to prefer a less regulated or strict organizational structure, hence opting to handwriting with ambiguous situations rather than seek clarification (Hofstede, 1991). In terms of uncertainty avoidance, it can be said the group members were threatened by the unknown situation of a group member leaving the team. In such there was a breakdown of the project events, which led to some low confidence within each members as this member was the group leader and also had strong characteristics. As per Hofstede such situation leads to not only less confidence and less motivation, but also lacks innovative thinking. Thus the uncertainty avoidance led to a resistance in innovation and creativity by the team members. It was this uncertainty avoidance, which led to a threat situation for the whole team. Avoidance/Addressing behaviourAnother dimension, which was noticed during the project work, was avoidance / addressing behaviour. The group either denied there was a conflict existing or even acknowledging that a conflict exists. The team members tended to change the subject, when someone tried to discuss thereby involving avoidance behaviour cultural dimension. Avoidance tactics included topic shifting to av oid the specific issue of conflict, avoiding a member altogether, postponing discussion, talking about abstract things rather than the conflict on hand, silence and denying that a problem exists (Canary, Cunningham Cody, 1988). Avoidance behaviour as per Weldon et al., (1996) exists when members do nothing to deal with the situation. As previously mentioned the group had a more of a collectivist antenna. Hence research suggests, collectivists are more of avoiding a conflict than individualists who address it more likely (Adler et al., 1992, Barnland, 1975, Cupach, 1982, Graham, 1984, Graham et al., 1987). Recommendations Guidelines Addressing the above issues, it can be said diverse cultures within a team tend to correspond to basic assumptions preferences and highly influence them to move towards a cultural dimensions addressed above. let us look at some recommendations based on the theories surrounding these dimensions to provide guidelines for future project. It is important that within a group the collectivist approach seems apt when working towards a project (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner (199752). They further add the manager or leader to be seriously affected by individualist approach. It is important to name certain areas of vital importance like negotiation, decision-making and motivation. As a leader there should be incentive based projects. This should relate to the achievement be it in academic terms or in a company project in monetary terms based on performance. Based on the empirical studies, the issue of power distance relates more towards individualism (Bochner Hesketh, 1994 Bond, Wan et al., 1985 Franke, Hofstede et al., 1991). It is this individualistic approach at times, where there should be focus on equality among team members versus hierarchical structure. This is based on the assumption that treating members within a group as equal individuals is the best way to motivate them (Hampden Turner Trompenaars, 1993). look into suggests th at interaction with outside constituents enables members to deal with any external threats or opportunities, which might confront them by allowing members to understand the ambiguities within their environment (Ancona Cadwell 1992a Lyonski et al., 1988). It is the acquisition of information, which reduces the ambiguities and avoids uncertainties. Members should not curse on one team member and should look for support either within themselves or look for outside support from their tutors and avoid ambiguities or uncertainties (Hofstede, 1991). As for avoiding conflict by not addressing it, it is best to move towards a direct behaviour dimension of culture. This should include acknowledging conflict and overt actions in contrast to not acknowledging it (Chua Gudykunst, 1987). As per Weldon et al., 1996, members using overt actions will conduct conflict management behaviour in a professional manner. In conclusion it is important to note that the cultural dimensions play an important role within any team and it project. The interaction of team members effects from a combination of cultural values be it from a specific country. Each team has a varied combination of people and therefore there are various challenges, which may imply different norms and styles. However there needs to be some agreement on how to make decisions, a leaders attitude on how to deal with conflict etcetera Bibliography Applegate, J. L. and Sypher, H. E. (1988) Constructivist theory and intercultural communication research. Beverly Hill sageBaldwin, J. R. (2006). Redefining Culture Perspective across disciplines. New Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum associatesBochner, S. (1994) Cross-Cultural Differences in the Self Concept A turn up of Hofstedes Individualism/Collectivism Distinction. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Vol. 25 273-283 Boyacigiller, N. Adler, N. (1991) The Parochial Dinosaur Organizational Science in a Global Context. Academy of Management Review. Vol. 16 (2) 262-290 Charles , L. Y. (2003) The art of investigative interviewing. Burlington Butterworth-HeinemannCox, T. H., Lobel S. McLeod, P. (1991) Effects of Ethnic Group Cultural Differences on Cooperative Behaviour on a Group Task. Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 34 (4) 827-847Gibson, R. (2002) Intercultural business communication. Oxford Oxford University Press.Golden, T. Veiga J. (2005) Spanning Boundaries and Borders Toward Understanding the Cultural Dimensions of Team Boundary Spanning. Journal of Managerial issues. Vol. 17GudyKunst, W. B. (2005) Theorizing about Intercultural Communication. London clear-sighted Publication Ltd.Gudykunst, W. B. (2003) Cross Culture and Intercultural Communications. London Sage Publication Ltd.Jehn, K. Weldon, E. (1995) Conflict Management in Bicultural Teams The International Journal of Conflict Management. Vol. 6 Issue 4Kim, U. et al, (1994) Individualism and Collectivism Theory, Method and Applications. Newbury Park, CA Sage Press. Kim, Y. and Gudykunst, W. (1988) Theoretical perspectives in intercultural communication(pp. 41-65). Beverly Hills SageTian, R.G. (2000) Understanding consumer behaviour psycho-anthropological approach North American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 2 No.2, pp.273-9.Trompenaars, F. Hampden-Turner, C. (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture (Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business). 2nd ed. London Nicholas Brealey PublishingTrompenaars, F. Wooliams, P. (2003) Business Across Cultures. England Capstone Publishing Ltd. Tuckman, B.W. Jensin, M.A.C. (1977) Stages of small group development revisited. Group and Organizational Studies, Vol.2, pp 419-427. Wing, L. (2005) Leadership in superior Teams A model for superior team performance. Team performance Management. Vol. 11 No.1/2 pp 4-11.

Stress And Pain In Labour Health And Social Care Essay

Stress And Pain In Labour Health And Social Care EssayLabour is a serial publication of events that takes place in the genital organs in an effort to expel the viable products of conception through the vagina in to outer world. During labour, the women experience some full stop of stress, discomfort and severe painfulness as her system responds to the effects of physical changes that prepare her to give birth. Labour process is a actual phenomenon. During the labour head mother have stress, anxiety, discomfort and severe pain. A scientific definition of pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or probable tissue damage. The investigator had seen several primigravida mothers during first stage of labour with severe pain and discomfort. During the clinical experience. So that minimizing motherlike discomfort and severe pain perception poor out go of labour. And promoting the maternal comfort the nurse can help the mother to get relief from pain and suffering.The nursing management with ambulation has evidential effect on improve maternal comfort, outcome of labour and reduce pain perception which helps to promote the comfort of the mother and its use is simple and has an real therapeutic care.The main arena was conducted at Maternal and child healthy GOSHA hospital, vizianagaram district Andhra Pradesh. The 60 primi gravida mothers who fulfilled the inclusive and exclusive criteria were selected for the study, out of which 30 mothers were experimental group and 30 of them control group and sample selected by using simple random sampling method by lottery method. Mother who came under group A lottery will come under the experimental group and mother who came under group B lottery will come under control group. After assessing the pre test direct of maternal comfort, pain perception the investigator provided ambulation technique for experimental group. Ambulation is a slow walking for 15mts with the separation of 15m ts assessment of each primi gravida mothers in experimental group. Routine hospital intervention for control group. After the third application the post test level of maternal comfort, pain perception and out come of labour was assessed by using maternal comfort assessment tool and graphic rating scale and scored.The findings of the study revealed that the calculated t value was The t value of the level of maternal comfort between experimental and control group is8.13.The t value of the level of pain perception between experimental and control group is15.1. Thet value of the outcome of labour between experimental and control group is 8.63 which showed low statistical significant at (p

Effect of Age Stereotypes on Balance Performance

Effect of Age Stereotypes on Balance Performance headland 1 An important aspect of somatic mathematical operation is the mogul to stay balanced. How may expectations generated by mount up stereotypes influence erstwhile(a) adults balance performance? critically review psychological theory and research relevant to this issue, and discuss broader implications for interventions that may softwargon documentation healthy physical functioning of older persons.Loh Qiu Yan MelissaAbstract old adults face wide range of climb on stereotypes as they age into their golden years. Such flavour cycles made passel question their cognitive ability and physical functions. The effect of age stereotypes led to one facing both positive and shun aspect of life. These constant stereotyping had negative impacts on health and physical function. exclusively with the second of brotherly interactions, it helped older folks acquire a choice in trail a more balanced life. The use of social cybersp aces helped assign their physical and cognitive functioning, giving them the room to dupe independence as well as learning more about their bodily functions.Importance and interventions in adduceing balance performance in physical functioning of older adults.Aging is an inevitable process in living beingnesss where the condition of the bole deteriorates resulting in reduce of functioning. This challenges the physical abilities and cognitive functioning of older people (Wulf, Chiviacowsky Lewthwaite, 2012) in instances of performing daily activities such as being mobile enough to bath and surcharge on their own (Clark, Hayes, Jones, Lievesley, 2009). In order to maintain the ability to be mobile and independent in bodily functions at an older age, this is usually accompanied with the decline in physical, mental and sensory abilities. These declines in functions put up affect performance in aras that submit cognition involving fluid intelligence for interpreter retenti on and abilities to reason and explain, along with problem that require administrator control involving vocabulary and word knowledge. Moreover, with the decline in physical functioning, particularly muscle strength and enounce flexibility mostly involves motor tasks and balance such as walking and running results in more dependence on cognitive resources at an older age due to the decline in eyesight and auditory range (Schaefer, Schumacher, 2010). These physical and cognitive challenges faced by older individuals can become issues potentially leading to age stereotypes caused by expectations and assumptions in limited abilities of older adults (Wulf, Chiviacowsky Lewthwaite, 2012).By understanding how aging and age stereotypes take place plays an important role for individuals in realising the anxiety and uncertainty that can further affect cognitive capacity, assuming of own abilities for example intellectual and reasoning abilities (Schaefer, Schumacher, 2010), and regula tion of positive and negative feedback attached (Wulf, Chiviacowsky Lewthwaite, 2012). The cognitive aspect of a person can be affected positively and negatively in ones mind set for example towards a challenging motor task which tests an older persons ability (Wulf, Chiviacowsky Lewthwaite, 2012). This further challenges the balance performance of an older person who might require more cognitive resources later in life (Schaefer, Schumacher, 2010). Hence, the importance of understanding aging, age stereotypes, cognitive and physical functions in influencing balance performance can help develop a more positive aspect in maintaining healthy physical functioning.To remedy perform the interventions required for physical functioning of older folks, it is prerequisite to understand the reason behind age stereotypes which can build a negative impact on older folks. One probable reason that can lead to a rise in age stereotypes is by labelling and categorising people into old age gr oups. As a result, it usually occurs where less favourable attitudes argon placed on older adults, viewing them as less productive members of society (Phillips, 2014). This in turn makes individuals come to a conclusion that these deep grow thoughts and beliefs, mind-set and perceptual behaviour actually support age stereotyping (Blaine, 2013). Furthermore reinforcing and heightening their levels of fear and dependency on others through and throughout their aging process (Clark, Hayes, Jones, Lievesley, 2009). These thoughts and fears atomic number 18 further embedded in their mind, altering their mind set thus creates a self-conscious state (Wulf, Chiviacowsky Lewthwaite, 2012), which results in self-stereotyping (Levy, 2003), and affecting balance performance which reduces the ability to perform (Wulf, Chiviacowsky Lewthwaite, 2012).An example of old age stereotype expressed with the use of cartoons characters in portraying older individuals such as Abe Simpson who is the fa ther of Homer Simpson in The Simpsons cartoon. He was portrayed as a senile and dependent person who appears to be quite difficult to handle at times, also seen as being a burden to his son. This portrayed older adults in a negative stereotypical manner with limited abilities to be independent which is not the case for everyone (Blaine, 2013). However, turn to a different perspective of age stereotyping happening in a workplace environment in the context of Singapore, it proved that there were certain generational differences in the negative stereotypes towards older employees. For example, employees at a younger age felt they had more efficiency towards the aspect of multitasking and creativity compared to older employees whom felt that they have stronger work ethics but think that younger employees have stronger demand towards recognition (Blauth, McDaniel, Perrin, Perrin, 2011). These generational differences were similar in the aspect of comparing the cognitive functioning whi ch is related to balance performance of both groups of people. With better understanding of the cause and reasons for age stereotypes guides older individuals foster a better relationship with their cognitive and body functioning.As much as ageism being a concern, with the constant stereotypical opinions and perception on older people, emotional reactions of these elderly folks are affected in both positive and negative ways (Blaine, 2013). Positive influences and implications can be through social means by interacting with family members, friends and various people from all walks of life. Not only does social interaction help regulate the emotional reactions of older folks it also encourages individuals in integrating with society through social means (Charles Carstensen, 2010). Social networks and interactions also have an effect on cognitive functioning where it is a motivational factor behind a better quality of life and the ability in maintaining independence despite increase in age Furthermore, resulting one to developing more self- efficacy in leading a better functional health. This is due to the body reacting in a positive manner where social interaction has a direct relationship with neuroendocrine and cardiovascular reactivity. Thus, with positive and supportive interactive reactions in the body help to reduce the physiological reactivity that has been linked to endocrine and cardiovascular activity resulting in cognitive decline (Seeman, Lusignolo, Albert Berkman, 2001).In the event of cognitive functioning of an older adult decreasing, there are higher chances of cognitive disorders or impairments such as signs of vascular dementia or Alzheimer to appear (Price, Corwin, Friedman, Laditka, Colabianchi Montgomery, 2011). Hence in order to maintain or increase cognitive functioning, having strong social networks and support in maintaining connectedness can improve ones mental and physical health, resulting in prevention of cognitive decline. Volun tary activities are one of the social network and integrating activities that encourages bonding sessions with different individuals, demands social and mental skills (Charles Carstensen, 2010) provides a sense of purpose and prevents isolation for those who face difficulties at any point in their life (Grimm, Spring Dietz, 2007). The effect of social interaction has a potential and positive influence on cognitive functioning where both fluid intelligence and executive control involve extensive intrinsic cognitive components required during social interaction for example striking conversations with people during bonding sessions and activities. Social integrating activities such as volunteering can help one have a better sense of control over life and physical health by providing support to other older adults and gaining a sense of accomplishment. With the use of these cognitive components can further promote older individuals having better cognitive engagement and functioning (Se eman, Lusignolo, Albert Berkman, 2001) which are linked to balance performance.Maintaining of balance may seem as a simple and indispensable part in many people, however it is a task that is physical and demands independence in the aspect of an elderly person (Onambele, 2006). Through the field of operation done by Wulf, Chiviacowsky, Lewthwaite (2012) tapeed that balance is influenced by social cognitive, affect and assuming of own abilities etc. Thus older adults balance performance can be further strengthened by increasing their perceive abilities in performing and completing tasks. In addition, based on a study done by Levy Leifheit-Limson (2009) similar to Wulf, Chiviacowsky, Lewthwaite (2012) where instilling of positive age stereotypes on physical or balance performance help mould a certain level of expectation towards the stereotype led to one conformist to it. As a result this causes one to self- stereotype (Levy, 2003), which affect the performance of the individual s in performing better due to the positive influence. Likewise if it was a negative stereotype, the outcomes are negative. Further implications on how stereotypes can affect balance and physical functioning are neatness of handwriting and repair of walking. This was seen in a study done by Levy (2003) where older adults exposed to negative stereotypes are likely to appear older and frail. The body conditions as observed through handwritings produced seemed to have a little towards illegible due to shaking and unstable movements of the hands which explains that balance performance is affected. In another experiment of exposure to positive stereotyping, the upper of an older adult showed connection between the former and the latter. By exposing them to positive views, makes them self- stereotype themselves towards a more positive and satisfying aspect. The idea of measuring the speed of walking is by how much time is needed for foot to be lifted off the ground and this is measured a s swing time which indicated balance. Therefore, results show that older individuals who were exposed to positive stereotypes had greater swing time in particular to having better balance in their physical movements and their cognitive functioning.In conclusion, age stereotypes, cognitive abilities and physical functions share meaningfully close relationships in maintaining balance performance for older adults. Positive and negative age stereotypes can give significant effects to an older adult which can be misled and neglected at times. This can cause further effects in time and worst if the stereotypes are negative. The use and help of social interaction and network can boost a persons physiological reactivity making one have a sense of accomplishment which promotes social integration. Most importantly it leads older individuals to keep their mind and body in working conditions which allow them practice and maintain independence.ReferencesBlaine, B. (2013). Understanding Age Ster eotypes and Ageism. InUnderstanding the psychology of diversity(2nd ed., pp. 175-186). SAGE Publications.Blauth, C., McDaniel, J., Perrin, C., Perrin, P. (2011). Age-Based Stereotypes Silent Killer of Collaboration and Productivity.AchieveGlobal,1(2), 1-15.Charles, S., Carstensen, L., (2010). Social and emotional aging. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 61, 383-409.Clark, A., Hayes, R., Jones, K. Lievesley, N., (2009). Ageism and age discrimination in social care in the United Kingdom. Centre for Policy on Aging.Grimm, R., Spring, K., Dietz, N. (2007). Volunteering, Life Satisfaction, and Mental health. InThe health benefits of volunteering A review of recent research.Corporation for National alliance Service, Office of Research and Policy Development.Levy, B. (2003). Mind Matters Cognitive and physiologic Effects of Aging Self-Stereotypes.The Journals of Gerontology Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,58(4), P203-P211.Levy, B., Leifheit-Limson, E. (2009). The s tereotype-matching effect great influence on functioning when age stereotypes correspond to outcomes.Psychology and Aging,24(1), 230-233.Onambele, G. (2006). Calf muscle-tendon properties and postural balance in old age.Journal of Applied Physiology,100(6), 2048-2056.Phillips, L. (2014). Efforts to Promote Physical Activity Must Battle Ageist Stereotypes. Research in Gerontological Nursing,7(1), 4-5.Price, A., Corwin, S., Friedman, D., Laditka, S., Colabianchi, N., Montgomery, K. (2011). Older Adults Perceptions of Physical Activity and Cognitive Health Implications for Health Communication. Health Education Behavior, 38 (1), 15-24.Schaefer, S., Schumacher, V. (2010). The Interplay between Cognitive and Motor Functioning in Healthy Older Adults Findings from Dual-Task Studies and Suggestions for Intervention.Gerontology,57, 239-246.Seeman, T., Lusignolo, T., Albert, M., Berkman, L. (2001). Social relationships, social support, and patterns of cognitive aging in healthy, high-fu nctioning older adults MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging.Health Psychology,20 (4), 243-255.Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., Lewthwaite, R. (2012). Altering mindset can enhance motor learning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27, 14-21. DOI 10.1037/a0025718

Short Story Essay -- Papers Creative Writing Essays

Short Story Once in a small cottage deep in a thickly overgrown forest t here(predicate) was a young boy who lived with his m other, his father and his elder sisters, two of the most beautiful girls in the entire of Ireland. This forest was different to the many others that form a blanket over this enchanted land. The young boy often quarrelled with his sisters and felt that their talents overshadowed him. The two beautiful girls were not only very fair of face but also always endeavoured to do well in their studies and were a great help to the mother near the cottage. One day, a day which seemed unusual to the young boy from almost the moment he woke in the morning, something happened which changed the life of the boy and the life of every Irishman here after. The day had begun with the young boy hearing his mother calling his name in a rather frantic tone. Luke, Luke, sh e called. The young boy feeling the signified of importance rushed down stairs to be meet by his father, mother and grandfather. His mother told him that neither of the girls had been seen since bedtime the previous night and asked him did he know where they powerfulness be or why they may have wandered off. The evening before this influential morning his sisters had decided to take a walk into the forest that meet the cottage. Luke did not wish to not be included in their adventure and so tagged along but always keeping a hardly a(prenominal) paces behind so as not to be seen by the girls and to be told to return to the cottage. He had over heard the girls talking about small creatures that lived in solitude i... ... into a banshee that he must suffer the penance of a horrific death and a eternal spell of bad circumstances upon any Irishman who hereafter dared to disturb a hidden fairy. It wasnt until preparing for the funeral of Luke that the Pare nts remembered his delirious rant but still dismissed it as the senseless ramblings of a dying child. save it is said that at the funeral of Luke ORiley that above the wails of his parents and other mourners could be heard the distinct high-pitched cries of several Banshees. It is also said that Two tiny creatures identical to his sisters could be seen wandering the dark hills around the cottage that was once their home crying in bereavement of their brother which they had taken for granted and would eternally join the other Banshees wailing at the funerals of every Irishman hereafter.

Free Essays: Comparing the Themes of Antigone and Oedipus the King :: comparison compare contrast essays

The Themes of Antigone and Oedipus Antigone and Oedipus, written by Sophocles, are dramatic plays with a tragic ending. The main theme for Antigone is that people sometimes flip to learn the hard way from their mistakes. This theme is expressed in the final four telephone lines of the play. They read, There is no happiness where there is no wisdom No wisdom nevertheless in submission to the gods. Big words are always punished, And proud men in old age learn to be wise. These lines are an master(prenominal) part of the play. They symbolize Creons bad decisions he made, his defiance to the gods, the punishment he went through because of his edict, and the wisdom he gained because of all his mistakes. There is no happiness where there is no wisdom demonstrates how Creon not using wisdom in his decision affected him. By declaring that Polyneices could not have a graceful burial, he went against the gods and the other citizens of Thebess beliefs. This was not a wise decision on his part, and because of it he lost his wife, his son, and his happiness. Creon also defied the laws of the gods. This is what is expressed in the line, No wisdom but in submission to the gods. In Antigone, the edict and decisions that Creon made demonstrated that his law was more important then the gods laws. His defiance of the laws eventually made him believe, by public lecture to Teirisias, that something bad would happen to him, so he gave in to his decision. When he gave into the gods he gained wisdom and learned that his actions would be punished. Creons edict is considered his big words. In the third line it says, Big words are always punished. Creons edict was punished by his loss of happiness. He proclaimed to his city that Polyneices may not be buried, when he did this he was very proud and demanding about his decision. He was determined not to change his mind for anything. These big words that he proclaimed would bring his downfall. Because Creon locked Antigone up, for co nceal Polyneices, she killed herself. Creons son Haimon, who was engaged to Antigone, also committed suicide upon seeing his beloved Antigone dead. Also Creons wife took her own life. If Creon hadnt gone against what was right, by making his laws more important then the gods laws, and issuing his edict, he would not have suffered the way he did.